Arousal Attenuates Directed Forgetting of Affective and Neutral English Words in an Item-Method Recognition Paradigm

Abstract

This study examined whether item-method directed forgetting (DF) for English words is better explained by affective categories or item-level valence, arousal, and dominance (VAD). Directed forgetting is a laboratory model of intentional memory control, but it remains unclear whether forgetting varies more by emotional category of words or their emotional dimensions. This distinction has received limited direct testing. A quantitative experimental design was used with 67 Pakistani adults recruited through convenience sampling; after prespecified exclusions, 60 were analyzed. Participants studied positive, neutral, negative, and threatening words followed by remember or forget cues, then completed a recognition test. Category effects were tested with binomial logistic regression, and dimensional effects with weighted models. A robust DF effect emerged. It was largest for neutral words and smallest for threatening words. Arousal significantly weakened the forget effect, whereas valence and dominance did not. Future work should prioritize arousal-sensitive models and culturally grounded verbal stimuli.